The protection of human rights in the theory of private International law
Silvia Marino1
I. SOME INTRODUCTORY REMARKS
A. The non-neutral character of Private International
Traditionally, the key aim of Private International Law (PIL) has been deemed to be the determination of the proper jurisdiction and the proper applicable law in the cases having cross- border implications. During the centuries, however, this goal has allegedly been achieved by different methods. We only need to consider the sovereign-related approach, according to which PIL rules aim at adjudicating the sovereignty to legislate and to decide;2 or the space-allocation of the legal relationship at stake: the theory of the seat3 is the most well-known example thereof. The primary advantage of such methods is the legal certainty: the connecting factors are rigid and unchangeable, so that the interested parties can foresee the legal consequences of every relationship, without any margin of appreciation being required. At the same time, these methods characterize PIL as a neutral field of law: the PIL rule links automatically the case at stake with one State, without being it necessary to consider values and variables different from the space-allocation.
This neutral approach has incurred different crisis. The first was due to the American Revolution. The common feature of the different prospective solutions4 is the flexible approach. The judge should consider the particular features of the concrete case, in order to balance their role in the situation at stake and determine thereby the applicable law. The normative predetermination of connecting factors has a poor legal value, since it is supposed to give too rigid outputs affected solely by space-allocation purposes. The natural flexibility of this approach allows to handle the judicial results towards different aims, which can be, for example, the protection of the legitimate expectations of the party(ies) concerned.5 This approach had the merit to consider the positions and the rights invoked by the parties in the dispute, in order to point out optimal solutions also in a PIL-related perspective.
The American Revolution fascinated European scholars, too. A clear example is the principle of proximity theory,6 according to which the applicable law depends on the most significant connections between the case and one State, all the elements of the factual situation considered. The principle can be matched only by presumptions, which must be nevertheless rebuttable, in order to grant at the same time legal certainty and flexibility.7
The second crisis of the PIL’s neutral character depended on the increasing use of conflict-of- laws rules in order to reach material-oriented results, as the protection of a weaker contractual party. For example, the 1968 Brussels Convention8 establishes partly exclusive rules onjurisdiction in disputes concerning contracts concluded by a consumer, an employee or an assured person; the Rome Convention provides for special connecting factors in contracts concluded by the consumer and the employee.9 PIL can realize material aims by choosing appropriate connecting factors.
A third ground of the crisis of the alleged neutrality of PIL rests on some judgments of the Italian and the German Constitutional Courts,10 who declared that national PIL rules can infringe the principles and the rights enshrined in their respective Constitutions. For example, if the connecting factor favours the men against the wife, or the father against the child, within the family relationships, the rule can violate the principles of non-discrimination and of equal treatment of the spouses, as codified in the national Constitutions.
B. Scope and purpose of the present paper
Currently it can be acknowledged that the neutrality of PIL is a myth: as every other branch of the law, it can be substantially-oriented and its rules must be consonant with national values and fundamental principles.11 This means that the conflict-of-laws rules, the connecting factors, the rules on jurisdiction and their application must output effects, which are consonant with the human rights promotion in cross-border cases. PIL must be enacted according to human rights law, in order to safeguard the rights of private parties. The protection of human rights in cross-border cases can amount to the new aim of post-modern PIL.12
The analysis of the relationships between human rights and PIL is not an easy task. Human rights are not absolute, since they depend on geographical, political and legal variables. First, we need to choose the sources of law that can be a normative paradigm. Further, as just mentioned, PIL, too, is not an absolute and immutable field of law. We only need to consider the different classical PIL methods,13 each of them characterized by different premises, purposes and scope. An analysis not taking into due account these variables would seem too theoretical and without a meaningful practical impact.14 Therefore, for the purposes of the present paper the approach will be as following.
Concerning human rights, a special attention is due to the European Convention of Human Rights (ECHR). This is justified by many reasons. First, it is the most prominent international convention applicable in Europe. Secondly, the European Court of Human Rights (ECtHR) decides concrete disputes on the application of the Charter, enriching its value(s) and updating the nature of the codified rights. Thirdly, the individual, ie the victim of the violation, can directly apply to the ECtHR against any Contracting State. Finally, from the (comparative) public law perspective, the ECHR has generally a high relevance in the sources of national/constitutional law.
Concerning PIL, the present paper starts from the results of recent studies, demonstrating that the currently most used PIL methods do not infringe a priori the human rights.15 This is already a fundamental conclusion, since the promotion of human rights does not dismantle the theoretical foundations of PIL. Nevertheless, this is just the point of departure of the present analysis, being indeed our question: ¿how can PIL protect and promote human rights? Is the introduction of new method(s), or of innovative rules within the classical methods, currently needed?
The ECTHR has already dealt with cross border disputes, within which traditional PIL had not been able to properly safeguard the human right of the individual(s) involved. A discussion on the future of PIL might start from these precise failures of the traditional PIL’s approaches.
II. THE IMPACT OF HUMAN RIGHTS ON PRIVATE INTERNATIONAL LAW
A. The role of Human Rights Law in cross-border situations
The ECtHR’s case law shows that only a few ECHR codified human rights played a role in cross-borders disputes: these are the right to private and family life, the right to fair trial, the right to property. In the opinion of the present author, however, this does not entail that these are the only human rights which can come into play in transnational cases. Although some human rights can be rarely infringed within private relationships (we need only to consider the prohibition of torture), nevertheless they cannot be considered irrelevant. Indeed, the ECtHR has already established in numerous judgments16 that the State might be indirectly responsible for misconducts of the individuals. Indeed, the State has a positive obligation to adopt measures designed to secure the respect of the human rights, ie a legislation aimed at avoiding such infringements, or, if occurred, at punishing the tortfeasor and at restoring the victim. Failing it, the State is responsible both directly for the violation of the right to a fair and effective judicial protection and indirectly for the infringement of the human right violated by the individual.
Scholars refer to this case law as stating an indirect horizontal effect of the human rights provisions.17 Since the ECHR does not bind private parties, it cannot be directly applied to the behaviour/misconduct of a private person. Nevertheless, the State as a Contracting Party must remove all its negative consequences and safeguard or restore the human right of the victim. If the claim does not succeed, the victim can file a complaint against the State before the ECHR. In the ECtHR words, the State has the positive obligation to introduce normative measures enhancing the human rights.18 This approach is general enough in order to be applied for every right enshrined in the ECHR, and in cross-borders situations, too.
Nevertheless, it is not possible to neglect that most of the cases dealt with the limited number of human rights listed above. In the opinion of the present author, this depends on the nature of the rights envisaged in the ECHR. Some are absolute, since they cannot be derogated even during times of wars or other public emergences (Article 15 of the ECHR). Therefore, these amount as for basic human rights, that the States are responsible to protect against any possible offence, anytime. Although national or international criminal law must play a primary role in these cases, PIL too can come into consideration, as demonstrated by some national case law. The well-known Kiobel case19 can be an example of the need to provide for a competent jurisdiction to hear the claims related to gross-violation of human rights law.
The other human rights can be limited. Sometimes, the provision granting the right lists also the reasons that can justify an interference in order to secure certain interests, as is the case of Article 8 of the ECHR. For other provisions, the ECtHR has clarified that the rights conferred have inherent limitations,20 whereas the States do not benefit of a wide margin of appreciation,21 as Article 6 of the ECHR. Other human rights, having the same ‘private’ and limited nature, can have the same effects. The freedoms of expression, of assembly and association of thought, conscience and religion, which admit similar (expressed or inherent) limits, may be relevant in cross-border cases and affect PIL, although there is still no specific case law on their impact in our subject- matter. Therefore, the following paragraphs will briefly discuss some of the cases already decided by the ECtHR concerning that listed number of human rights, submitting that the same solutions can be adopted also in relation to the other rights, mutatis mutandis.
Finally, it is possible to distinguish two different effects of the human rights law on PIL. The first is direct on the rules on the conflict-of-laws, whose content and impact must be consonant with the human right at stake. The second is an indirect effect, which means the impact of the application of a foreign law (or a foreign judgment) on the fundamental rights of the interested persons. The two effects will be further discussed.
B. The right to private and family life
In the recent years, the ECtHR case law has interpreted the notion of private and family life through an evolving approach. All the personal affective relationships between two consent adults are to be considered as an integral part of their family life, irrespective of their sex and of other external elements, as the cohabitation.22 At the same time, the individual’s private life includes a person’s physical and psychological integrity as well as the establishment of any relationships with other human beings.23
These far-reaching achievements affect also cross-border relationships. The ECtHR confirms that the refusal to recognise a legal status acquired abroad might amount to a violation of Article 8 of the ECHR, it being an illegal interference in the private or the family life of the individual(s) involved. Well-known examples thereof are the Wagner and the Negrepontis cases.24 The cross- border continuity of the means of personal identification should as a principle be granted. Provided that they are integral part of the individual’s private life,25 the State has a positive obligation to balance the person’s fundamental interest to having a single identification and the public interest as for the recognition of such person, acting within a wide margin of appreciation.26
As a consequence of this case law, the State has a positive obligation to recognise and accept legal, personal and familiar situations created abroad, although they do not perfectly correspond to any institution of family law provided for in that State; exceptions are admitted to the extent that they satisfy a legitimate aim and are proportionate. This does not mean that PIL has lost its meaning,27 but rather it has a new aim: the outcome of the application of the conflict-of-laws rules must be disregarded, if and to the extent that it infringes the human rights in the case at stake. Human rights law can correct in these limited hypotheses a practically unacceptable result.
Nevertheless, according to the ECtHR’s case law, the right to private and family life is not absolute: public interferences may be legitimate, if they are aimed at balancing the individuals’ rights with the protection of other (collective or public) rights and interests.28 The ECtHR Mennesson and Labasse cases29 are a good example thereof: the cross-border continuity of the personal status could not be granted, due to the practical impact of the refusal of recognition of the child-parent relationship and of the margin of appreciation of the State.
The abusive or fraudulent behaviour of the person concerned might justify an interference from the State, too. This is well-demonstrated by the case McDonald,30 since a proceeding in the USA had been started by the claimant after a judgment against his interests was delivered in France; therefore, France can refuse to recognise the foreign decision, with the result that the continuity of the legal status acquired abroad cannot be assured.
C. The right to a fair trial
The right to a fair trial may come into play under two branches.
The first related topic concerns the rules on the determination of jurisdiction, since one of the meanings of the right to a fair trial is the access to a judge. Does the right to a fair trial affect the provisions on the determination of the international jurisdiction of the State? The ECtHR has by now decided only one dispute on the determination of international jurisdiction. In the Arlewin case31 the Court stated a violation of Article 6 of the ECHR, due to the fact that the Swedish Courts refused to accept jurisdiction in a case which was strictly connected with Sweden. Although a the concurrent jurisdiction of the UK Courts could be stated, in the case at hand it was unreasonable and unpractical for the applicant to claim in the UK; therefore the Swedish Courts had to grant access to justice. It must be stressed, however, that in this dispute the refusal to hear a case did not amount to a complete denial of justice, due to the possible alternative jurisdiction of the UK Courts.
Against this background, two other core issues must be considered.
Firstly, are exorbitant fora to be admitted?32 The judgment in Arlewin seems to confirm that the access to a Court must be reasonably practical because of the strength connections between the case and the Court. However, such a reasoning is to be welcome to the extent that at least two jurisdictions are alternatively competent. In the McDonald case, too, French and Florida Courts could exercise jurisdiction, but the ECtHR did non express any evaluation on the French rules on jurisdiction (and the nationality privilege) under Article 6 of the ECHR, because the case was resolved under different grounds.
The problem is different, if the exorbitant forum is the only available: the refusal to accept jurisdiction would practically consist in a denial of justice, since no judge will hear the case. In the case Nait-Liman v Switzerland33 the ECtHR stated that national Courts can refuse to hear the case failing any meaningful link with the dispute. The case concerned the application of the exceptional forum necessitatis rule and therefore it does not seem possible to extend this outcome, while applying general rules on jurisdiction.
Secondly, are discretionary rules on jurisdiction to be admitted, as the forum non conveniens? Here, too, we cannot find an express answer by the ECtHR. Nevertheless, in the application of Article 6 of the ECHR the State must use its margin of appreciation without any discrimination and according to a rule of reason. Therefore, it is submitted that the right to a fair trial does not prevent a discretional refusal to hear the case, provided that the margin of appreciation is correctly used and justified, the circumstances of the case have been duly evaluated and the court of another State accepts jurisdiction, in order to grant that a judge will hear the case.
The second related topic concerns the rules on recognition and enforcement of foreign judgments and judicial decision. Although the exequatur proceedings do not have as principal object a trial on civil rights, Article 6 of the ECHR is nevertheless applicable. Indeed, the enforcement of final judicial decision on the merits is integral part of the trial,34 as so not to jeopardise the rights of one party. This principle applies also in cross-border cases, when a judicial decision issued abroad is to be recognised or enforced: the exequatur proceeding must be consistent with the guarantees of the fair trial.35 Still, the impact of Article 6 of the ECHR is not limited to this.
According to the ECtHR case law, a further control of the foreign judicial decision may be required before its recognition or enforcement, as clearly stated in the Pellegrini case.36 The judicial decision must be scrutinised before granting its recognition or the enforcement, and the control must at least regard the respect of human rights in the proceeding on the merit and in the final judgment. This is true even if the State of origin, ie where the proceeding on the merits took place, is a Contracting Party of the ECHR. Indeed, the mere adhesion to an international convention cannot assure the full respect of all the rights envisaged therein in the case at hand.37
However, the control can be limited; this might in particular happen between Member States of the European Union participating to the civil judicial cooperation. Indeed, in the case Povse38 the ECtHR has declared the admissibility of the automatic enforcement of the foreign decision, provided that a control has been pursued in the Member State of origin and that the automatism is aimed at protecting another fundamental right (as the superior interest of the child in the case at stake).
D. The right to property
The ECtHR has dealt in different occasions with the right to property in cross-border situations.
First, this issue is strictly linked with the respect of the right to a fair trial in the context of the enforcement proceeding. In the case Vrbica39 the Court had examined the refusal to enforce a foreign civil decision, justified by the fact that the exequatur proceeding was time-barred in Croatia. The Court expressed the view that the applicant may allege a violation of the right to property only in so far as the decisions relate to his or her ‘possessions’ within the meaning of Article 1 of Protocol n 1 of the ECHR. A claim may be regarded as an asset only when it is sufficiently stable to be enforceable. Since the decision at stake was a final judgment, against which no appeal was admitted, the claim could accordingly be qualified as an ‘asset’ protected by Article 1 of Protocol No. 1. The impossibility of obtaining the enforcement constitutes an interference with the right to the peaceful enjoyment of possessions of the applicant, whose legitimacy must be scrutinised on a case-by-case basis.
Secondly, the right to property may affect also cases strictly related to family law. The clearest example thereof is the abovementioned Negrepontis case, since the refusal to recognise the adoption had amounted to a subsequent violation of the right to property of the adopted person as the (sole) heir of the adoptive father, too.
Finally, the right to property raises fundamental issues, to the extent that rights to be registered are concerned. The classical examples are the right in rem on immovable property and the intellectual property rights. Their regulations can be diverging in different States, in a comparative perspective. Therefore, it is practically difficult to apply a foreign law, or to recognise foreign public documents or foreign decisions concerning a good or an immaterial right. The alternatives can be the following. First, a national positive obligation to grant an unknown right in cross-border situations could be established. This solution would create practical difficulties and would interfere with national legislation on private property and the generally accepted numerous clausus. Second, the opposite perspective would neglect any unknown right acquired abroad. Nevertheless, the refusal to admit different regulations on the private property can mean the disavowal of every right on that good, stemming in an infringement of the right to property. Some compromise solutions must be found in order to balance the private’s right, on the one hand, and the exclusive competence of the State to determine which rights can exist within its jurisdiction, on the other hand.
III. THE LEGITIMATE EXPECTATIONS OF THE INDIVIDUAL/PARTIES
The increased promotion of human rights means, among the others, that the law must focus on the protection of the individuals’ rights and private interests.40 Within the legal framework described above, individuals are becoming increasingly aware of their rights, acting purposely in order to reach a specific target. We need only to refer to the circumstances that led to the Paradiso and Campanelli case, as a good example of the behaviour of the individuals. Persons move across the borders, acting to acquire a right that they consider fundamental; afterwards, they expect their rights to be recognised and safeguarded everywhere.
If the free movement of persons (with particular regard within the EU) can be a means to acquire rights, too, nevertheless, the law cannot protect mere wishes of the individuals. Therefore we have to tell a legitimate expectation, which must be legally safeguarded, from subjective attitudes that are irrelevant for the law, and that can be even considered abusive in extreme circumstances.
There are some controversial preliminary issues in the definition of a legitimate expectation.
First of all, the parties could not even be conscious that their relations have cross-borders implications and/or do not understand their possible consequences. However, this issue pertains more to sociology, not being the consciousness a normative practical concern. Nevertheless, we can presume that some individuals are aware of the content and the effect of their actions and the legal relationships they enter into: we need only to consider the multinational societies, operating in more countries, in those structures a legal advisor or office is generally present.
Secondly, it is necessary to determine which can be the content of an expectation. Since this is a psychological status, once more the jurist can offer only a tentative definition, rather than a precise characterisation. Undeniably, the content of an expectation depends on different variables. For example, these might stem from the difference between a natural person and a legal entity; among the former, from the level of education and life’s experiences, among the latter, from the attitude to enter in transnational relationships. Moreover, it may vary depending on the concrete issue, as for example if a dispute arises in contractual or in family matters. Even the possibility to consult a legal advisor can change the expectations of the parties.
Finally, in relationships involving two or more persons, each one might have different expectations on the effects thereof. Furthermore, there is a growing number of private rights stemming from the evolving social sensibility, as well as from scientific developments. Classical examples are the rights related to surrogacy arrangements and same-sex couples. The issue is well-known, but still creates the emergence of legal unresolved problems. Since those rights are recognised in some States but not regulated or prohibited in others, the international tourism aimed at acceding to them is now quite a common practice. This creates a cross-border situation, in which the persons concerned claim the recognition of the new legal status acquired abroad, as an integral part of their right to a family life. What can PIL do under this factual framework? The sociological and psichological features makes illogic the idea to ground a legal system based on the parties’ subjective expectations.41
Nevertheless, post-modern PIL can take in the highest consideration the legitimate aims of the parties.
The ‘legitimate expectations’ do not correspond to every individual’s desire, but stem from a balance of the individuals wishes and other requirements, in order to avoid any subjectivism and arbitrariness.
Therefore, legitimate expectations can be considered the legal certainty, granted by the fact that the disputes are not resolved through ad hoc criteria; or the predictability of the outcomes of a claim, grounded on the possible knowledge of the law and its application; or the application of a law which has some meaningful connections with the case at stake; or, to a certain extent, the recognition of the rights acquired abroad. Accordingly, we might limit ourselves to a general definition: the expectation is legitimate to the extent that it is already reconciled with objective requirements and it does not rest only on a psychological attitude. If we consider these elements, too, the expectation can indeed become one of the general principles, which a modern PIL can currently be based on.
IV. CONFLICTING RIGHTS?
The general framework can be even more complicated than this. In human relationships, rights can be conflicting. From the case law already mentioned, too, it is clear that the right of the individual is not an isolated item, but can live with or against other different rights, to which the same person, or other individuals, are entitled.
A good example thereof is the case Hämäläinen:42 the right to the sexual identity can conflict against the right to family life of the same person and the two rights cannot be fully realised simultaneously. In this event, the State has a wide margin of appreciation in looking for a reasonable balance of the conflicting rights.
The opposition of rights claimed by different individuals is a more common hypothesis.43
Looking into the ECtHR’s case law, we might refer as an example to the Pellegrini case. Against the right to a fair trial of the wife, the right to the continuity of the status of the husband and to his private life can be opposed.44 The same is true in the more recent Avotiņs case,45 where a conflict between the right to a fair trial of the defendant in the proceedings on the merits and the right to a fair trial of the applicant in the context of the enforcement of a foreign judicial decision was at stake.
How should States balance these conflicts in cross-border situations, in order not to jeopardise the right of any party?
The first suggested step is to point out an objective criteria so as to establish if one of the conflicting rights might prevail in the case at stake. When dealing with children’s rights, the ECtHR seems to have no doubts on the approach. According to the judgment in Povse, the superior interest of the children must prevail against the right to private and family life of the responsible parent(s). The case Šneersone46 offers a very similar outcome. Quite reasonably, the rights and the practical interests of the child must prevail, all the circumstances of the case considered.
Furthermore, the praxis shows that some parties in a private relationship generally are in a weaker position, to be particularly protected. Examples thereof are the consumer, the employee, or the victim of a tort. There is a quite unanimous consent on the opportunity to strengthen the protection of these parties, which is usually enhanced through the method of the substantial conflict-of-laws rules, ie, briefly described, the application of the substantial law which is most in favour or the (probably) best known for the weak party. This can be one of the possible conflict- of-laws solutions, insofar as it is possible to predetermine a right (and therefore a party) to protect at a great extent.
A prevailing right is however not always possible to determine. We only need to consider the classical example of the conflict between the freedom of expression and the privacy rights, which originates from the publication of infamous or false information on the victim. If we look at the classical PIL methods in the determination of the applicable law to cross-border cases, any objective a priori connecting factor advantages one of the parties concerned. Indeed, through the seat of the editor, the freedom of expression is granted to the detriment of the right to private life of the victim. The result is in the opposite sense, if we chose the law of the habitual residence of the victim as applicable. Finally, the place where the damage occurred corresponds most probably or at least quite often to the habitual residence of the victim, following the same result. In this example both parties concerned are enjoying different human rights. We might suggest favouring a priori the victim, because he/she suffered a damage only as a consequence of the misconduct of another person; this choice can nevertheless be contradicted by the consideration that the editor’s freedom of expression can be functional to a public interest (the diffusion of information), to be therefore highly protected. In these cases it is impossible to determine a priori which right must prevail, depending instead on the case at hand: the importance of the information, the notoriety of the victim, the modalities of presentation of the information, the professionalism of the tortfeasor. A general implementation of the method of the substantial conflict-of-laws rules is impossible, because its precondition is the predetermination of a legal position to be safeguarded. Therefore, this method must be enhanced in limited cases, for type of relationships wherein the balances between the parties can be easily abstracted to be valid in every possible case.
A different approach is needed in the other cases.
V. THE TRADITIONAL TOOLS IN PRIVATE INTERNATIONAL LAW: THE PUBLIC POLICY EXCEPTION AND THE OVERRIDING MANDATORY NORMS
Against this factual and legal background, it is clear that the issue of the promotion of the fundamental rights in transnational relationships is far from being an easy task.
PIL methods have always considered safeguard clauses aimed at promoting national values and rights. We are referring to the public policy exception and the overriding mandatory norms. The issues are very well know47 and the following pages wishes only to discuss advantages and drawbacks of these methods in a human rights oriented PIL perspective.
The public policy defence prevents the application of a foreign law (or of specific norms thereof), or the recognition and the enforcement of a foreign (judicial) decision whose effects would infringe the fundamental values of the State. Human rights can be included therein: if the reception of foreign laws and decisions jeopardises the protection accorded in a State, they might be rejected. Therefore, the public policy exception seems a functional tool for the safeguard of fundamental rights, since no room might be given to any foreign element conflicting with them.
It is however submitted that this method can work only partially: some features make it improper in some circumstances. First of all, the fully detailed content of the ECHR provisions, as clarified by the ECtHR case law, cannot make integral part of the public policy, which is formed by general abstract principles and not by specific applicable rules. Secondly, this safeguard has a typical ex post functioning, as a last resort mean in order to prevent unwished outputs. Thirdly, it entails only negative effects,48 ie it merely bars the acceptance of foreign elements, but it does not state how the case at hand should be dealt with. Fourthly, it partly brings legal uncertainty: the exception might (and not must) be applied, other considerations might be balanced49 and its content depends on the fundamental values of the State required. Finally, there is not a common rule on the consequences of its application: which law should apply?, ¿how must the factual situation be dealt with after the refusal of recognition or enforcement of a foreign decision? There is no internationally uniform answer to these important questions that affect the outcomes of the private dispute.
The overriding mandatory norms can be functional to the safeguard of human rights, too, provided that their content implements these values. Furthermore, their function is positive, in the sense that they supply a rule necessarily applicable in cross-border cases.50 Nevertheless, the regulation provided for in these norms is usually very limited in its material scope, so that it cannot offer a complete solution to a complex dispute. Moreover, the application of the overriding mandatory rules prevents the acceptance of foreign values, since it excludes even the role of the conflict-of-laws rules:51 in an internationally-open oriented judicial system, their relevance should be limited at most.
Thirdly, these rules have no role in the context of the recognition and enforcement of foreign judgments. Finally, the ECHR provisions cannot be characterised as overriding mandatory rules to be applied by the Contracting State in every circumstance: most of the rights envisaged can be limited, while the internationally mandatory rules do not accept any limitation.
Furthermore, both tools concern the indirect effect of human rights on PIL, that means the results of the application of a foreign law or judgment. There is no effect whatsoever on the structure of PIL’s rules.
Against this background, these two traditional tools cannot be considered general methods suitable at the protection of human rights: drawbacks prevail on advantages. Still, they must be kept in national, international and supranational systems of PIL, provided that they can work as a sort of last instance safeguard against foreign outcomes that cannot be corrected or modelled through other means.
Different approaches can therefore be scrutinized.
VI. SOME TREND DEBATES: PRIVATE AND FAMILY LAW IN CROSS-BORDER SITUATIONS AND THE STATUS ACQUIRED ABROAD
The challenge of the promotion of human rights in cross-borders relationships may require new approaches to the PIL-related issues. Scholars are currently debating a new PIL method, that would grant at most the protection of the private and the family life in cross-border situations. We are referring to the recognition of legal situations. Its key feature is a great openness towards foreign values and legal outputs. It has a complementary nature with respect to the conflict-of-law rules, aimed at avoiding limping situations. Although the scholars are still debating on its necessary working conditions,52 there seem to be a general consent to one requirement in particular, ie the validity of the legal situation in the State of origin (where the status had been created). The fulfilment of this condition would allow the recognition of every legal status acquired abroad, anyhow be it certified. The receiving State is prevented from applying its own national rules on the recognition of foreign legal situations and public documents. To summarize, the national rules of the States of origin ensure the validity of a situation that must then be accepted in all the other countries; instead of being changed, the conflict-of-law rules are coordinated in cross-border situations.
The current focus of the debate is how to determine the requirement for the ‘original competence’.53 Moreover, it is discussed if and to what extent this condition could be further provided for by a safeguard clause on public policy. Notwithstanding the necessary theoretical debate, scholars underline that this method is able to offer numerous advantages. Indeed, it admits the cross-border continuity of all the legal situations and status validly created abroad. The same applies to unknown (personal and familiar) institutions, as surrogacy and same-sex marriages – to go back to examples already mentioned. This result might satisfy the legitimate expectations of the individuals, since the personal or familiar status can freely circulate, without any recognition procedure being required, together with the persons concerned.
The method is not anymore only a theoretical suggestion. Some States have already introduced similar simplified systems for the recognition of civil status acquired abroad. One example is Article 65 of the Italian law n 218/1995, on the system of private international law, which admits the recognition of foreign judicial decisions on personal status or on family relationships, provided that some further conditions on the international jurisdiction, the respect of the right to fair trail and the public policy, are fulfilled.54 Other examples can be found in Article 9 of the Book X of the Dutch Civil Code, which gives the possibility of plain recognition provided that the legitimate expectations of the parties are thereof satisfied, and in Article 73 of the Swiss law on PIL, although its material scope of application is limited to the recognition of children.
Notwithstanding the recognised advantages of the method, a set of reasons leads the present author to submit that this approach does not suit completely to the aim. The first one relates to the limited scope of application of the method, that can be functional only for disputes related to a personal or familiar status. Therefore, it can be implemented only in a (very important but) quite limited field. Secondly, it requires a review of theoretical grounds of PIL, since it is implicitly based on a strong trust on the outputs reached in foreign States. This is possible only under limited circumstances, as an already existing strong integration within different legislative and judicial systems (as in the European Union),55 or a limitation of its scope of application (as in Switzerland), or, finally, a submission to further controls in the State required (as in Italy). Thirdly, the abovementioned case law of the ECtHR has a neutral approach as for the allocation of the competence to constitute a legal situation: there has not been any control on the origin of the status, as is clear in the Henry Kismoun case. Since the ‘competence to issue a public document’ is not a possible relevant element, the primary factor was the individual’s will in the case at stake. The impossibility to ascertain the validity of that situation is a direct consequence of this approach, since the validity cannot depend on the wishes of a private person.
Fourthly, the method enhances the personal status anyhow certified, without any
considerations on other human right that can be relevant at stake. The only possible outcome of the method is the cross-border continuity of a status, which is an important goal, but not the sole: as seen, there might be prevailing rights, or, in any case conflicting rights and/or interests that should be balanced.
Fifthly, it is not completely true that the method does not impact on national legislations. Quite on the contrary, the national rules on the recognition of foreign status and public documents should
be disregarded, once established that the State of origin has competence to create that (certified) situation. Any other condition requested by the national legislation cannot be applied. Therefore, the method affects the national provisions on the recognition of the effects of legal situations created abroad, leaving aside (only) the conflict-of-law rules.
Then, to the extent that the public policy exception is admitted, the requested State has always a margin of appreciation in order to refuse to grant recognition to unknown status and personal and familiar institution. Once more, the Italian case law is a good example of the persisting possibility to refuse to accept foreign outcomes,56 although the provision of the law is very internationally-open oriented.
Finally, Article 8 of the ECHR does not impose this method, which is not perfectly consonant with the abovementioned case law. According to the ECtHR jurisprudence, the cross-border continuity of the status can be an aim to be attained for, but the methods used in order to reach this result are irrelevant. Moreover, a number of limitations to the right to private and family life may justify the denial of recognition. The method of recognition of legal situations would amount to a sort of unconditioned acceptance of every type of relationship certified abroad and of their related legal effects. The ECHR does not strictly require this outcome.57
These considerations lead the present author to submit that the legal recognition cannot be the general method to be implemented in order to safeguard human rights in the cross-borders relationships. A limited role can be played to the extent that PIL rules have led to a human rights- related unacceptable result in the case at stake as a sort of last instance corrective. Nevertheless, its impact on family relationships must still be fully tested, in order to verify if and to what extent (geographical and material) it can be normatively implemented.
VII. THE ROLE OF PARTY AUTONOMY IN HUMAN RIGHTS ORIENTED SYSTEMS
A different solution to be scrutinized is the role of the party autonomy. The starting point can be the following. If the parties in a legal relationship have already reached an agreement concerning the applicable law and the jurisdiction, this is concretely the result of their evaluations on the opportunity of the choice(s). The suitability of their determinations can depend on many factors, included the equal balance of their (human or fundamental) rights and interests.
In contractual matters, the party autonomy is generally admitted. Some examples are given by Article 3 of the EU Regulation 593/2008, on the law applicable to contractual obligations, or, on the same matters, Article 116 of the Swiss law on PIL, or artt. 25 and 26 of the EU Regulation 1215/2012, on the jurisdiction in civil matters.58 Outside Europe, a very far seeing solution is given by the provision contained in Article 3 of the Law of the People’s Republic of China on the Laws Applicable to Foreign-Related Civil Relations.59
The free choice of law and jurisdiction implements the self-determination,60 that stems from each owns personal evaluation of suitability and appropriateness. It being a typical possibility in the context of contract law, it must be verify if it should be extended also to other fields of the civil law.
The general answer can be affirmative. The sensitiveness of human rights issues in other fields of the law, as for family law, is not a proper justification in order to exclude party autonomy. Indeed, contracts too might affect human rights, as the right to property, included intellectual property, the protection of personal data, the freedom to choose an occupation and right to engage in work, the freedom to conduct business, among others. Therefore, the difference between contract law and family law is not due to the fact that only the latter is a human rights-related field, while the former is neutral by nature. The interactions between the freedom of the parties and their human rights can be similar: the role of human rights in these issues is not a reasonable justification in order to admit interferences and limitations in party autonomy in matters different than contract law.
Furthermore, the freedom to choose can be itself an implementation of a human right, too, according to the ECtHR case law. In the judgment Sheffield and Horsam,61 the Strasbourg Court has stated that the ECHR does not provide for an autonomous right to the individuals self- determination, because it is the ground of other freedoms and rights recognised, such as the freedom to liberty (Article 5) and the right of private life (Article 8). Therefore, the possibility to choose the applicable law can be considered the proper exercise of one of those rights.62
This suggestion does not exclude the necessity to limit the party autonomy in specific cases. One hypothesis is the need to protect a weaker party. An example thereof is Article 8, paragraph 4 of the Protocol on the Law Applicable to Maintenance Obligations,63 according to which the renunciation to the right to maintenance is regulated by law of the State of the habitual residence of the creditor at the time of the designation of the applicable law. Therefore, it is not possible to lower the needs of the economical weaker party under the limits envisaged by the otherwise applicable law.
Other limitations can be justified whenever a human right must a priori prevail over the conflicting rights. This is the reason why a comparative perspective on national PILs highlights a general denial of the choice of the applicable law regarding the status and the parental responsibility towards a child. Another example is Article 7 of the EU Regulation 864/2007, on the law applicable to non-contractual obligations.64 In the context of environmental damages, only the person that seeks compensation can choose the applicable law, the consent of the tortfeasor not being necessary. This means that a prevalence of the right to the integrity of person, as a part of his/her right to private life (which is also an integral part of a public interest to a safe environment and a sane population), is recognised over the freedom to conduct a (potentially polluting) business.
The position of the victim can be privileged.
The limitation of the party autonomy must however be justified by material considerations, in the limited cases where an a priori balance of the interests and rights at stake is possible; in the other cases, it can be functional to the promotion of human rights, according to the legitimate expectations of the parties expressing a choice.
VIII. INNOVATIVE SOLUTIONS IN CLASSICAL PIL METHODS
Another possibility is given by the modernisation of the more classical methods of coordination. These can be modelled in order to satisfy the new social needs discussed in this paper. Through the introduction of new institutions and rules, the traditional PIL aims converge towards the promotion of the human rights involved. The international harmony of the legal and judicial solutions develops towards the need to grant the cross-border continuity of the personal status; the party autonomy satisfies the legitimate expectations of the parties; the determination of the sovereignty to decide implements the right to access to justice and the equal balance of the parties in a civil proceeding.65
In the current international experience and in some more recent EU regulations innovative mechanisms have been established, whose functionality must be still tested. It is submitted that they can work as tools for the promotion of human rights.
One example is the margin of appreciation attributed to the judge in order not to apply the classical rigid connecting factors, if their outputs risk to contravene human rights and/or the legitimate expectations of the parties.66 The recent EU regulations on the judicial civil cooperation have admitted some discretionary jurisdiction, too, establishing rules inspired by the common law classical forum non conveniens principle.67
A second example is given by the forum necessitatis, whose roots can be found in Article 3 of the Swiss law on PIL,68 currently codified in four EU regulations.69 The rule can be considered as an implementation of the right to a fair trial, in the context of the access to justice.70 If this right is precluded in a third State due to extraordinary legal or factual circumstances, a jurisdiction of an EU Member State can be seized, provided that the dispute has a sufficient connection with it. The rule sets aside any consideration on proximity and predictability of the forum, in order to grant a fundamental right in exceptional circumstances.
A further example is given by flexible solutions even concerning rights in rem -related issues. PIL rules can provide for the adaptation of an unknown right in rem, granted in the State of origin, to the closest equivalent right under the law of the State requested.71 Account should be given to the aims and the interests pursued by the specific right and the effects attached to it. This tool is far-reaching, since it admits the continuity of the rights in rem, ie the right to private property, as far as possible having due regard to the different national legislation. Therefore it is not necessary to register type of rights which are not known in the State of registration and it is possible to avoid every contradiction within a legal system. Notwithstanding the theoretical functionality of this institution, its application can be rather complicated in practice, a comparative perspective between at least two different national regulations on property law being required.
A last example can be the development of the rules concerning the recognition and the enforcement of foreign decisions and/or certified public documents. In the EU, the former is automatic and can be contested under limited and detailed grounds. The exequatur proceeding is simplified, being the control in the requested State limited. In some cases the enforcement is automatic, too, and the foreign judicial decision has the same legal value of a national judgment, provided that a few formal and substantial conditions are fulfilled.
These methods allow the easiest circulation of the foreign decisions, enhancing therewith the rights of the parties concerned, being subject to a small number of conditions aimed at safeguarding national and collective interests, or (very meaningfully) balancing other fundamental or human rights.
As a concluding remark, all the methods and rules presented in this paper might improve the convergence of PIL towards the aims of human rights law and might be suitable to promote these in a transnational context. New PIL methods, the valorisation of party autonomy, the modernisation of the classical PIL methods might all realise the individuals’ fundamental rights and the balance of conflicting rights. Against this background, the public policy clause and the enactment of mandatory norms can be maintained in rather exceptional circumstances, to the unlucky (but extremely uncommon) extent that the new methods and the new institutions within the traditional methods have failed in the case at stake. Flexibility and a deep examination of the case at stake are a suitable approach in order to grant and to balance (conflicting) human rights a public/national interests.
Above all, however, a fair new political and social approach is needed: States must be internationally open-oriented within private-related issues. Indeed, PIL deals with relations between individuals, acting in order to reach private aim and purposes. In this context, the public interference must be reduced at most, whereas national measures must be implemented in order to safeguard those interests and rights.
1 Dr. Silvia Marino, Researcher in European Union Law, Dipartimento di Diritto, Economia e Culture, Università degli Studi dell’Insubria, Via Sant’Abbondio 12, 22100 Como, Italy; e-mail: sivia.marino@uninsubria.it.
2 One example is the theory of the Italian statues, according to which the origin of the person concerned is an a priori connecting factor allocating cross-border private cases: HEUZÉ Vincent y MAYER Pierre. “Droit international privé”, 11 ed., Paris: LGDJ, 2014. p. 49.
3 VON SAVIGNY Friedrich, Carl. “System des heutigen römischen Rechts”, Vol. 8, Veit, 1849. p. 27.
4 Among others: CAVERS David. “Critique of the Choice of Law Problem”. Harvard Law Review. (47):173-208, 1933; LEFLAR Robert. “American Conflicts Law”, Bobbs Merrill, 1959; CURRIE Brainerd. “Notes on Methods and Objectives in the Conflict of Laws”. En su: Selected Essays on the Conflict of Law. North Carolina: Durham, 1963, p. 177.
5 This is very clear from the landmark case Babcock v Jackson, 191 NE2d 279 (NY 1963) decided by the New York Court of Appeal. In a traditional approach, the law of the place where the harmful event occurred had to be applied. In the case at stake, this outcome did not seem proper, since the perpetrator and the victim had the same habitual residence. Thanks to flexible clauses it has been possible to apply the law of the common habitual residence, since it better suited the expectations of the parties.
6 LAGARDE Paul. “Le principe de proximité dans le droit international privé contemporain; cours général de droit international privé”. Recueil des Cours de l’Académie de Droit International. (196):9,1986.
7 The principle has been so successful, that it is the general rule for the determination of the applicable law to contractual obligations according to Article 4 of the 1980 Rome Convention on the law applicable to contractual obligations (consolidated version). Official Journal of the European Union, C 27, p. 34, 1998. The Convention has been replaced by the European Parliament and the Council Regulation (EC) 593/2008 of 17 June 2007, on the law applicable to contractual obligations (Rome I). Official Journal of the European Union, L 177, p. 6, 2008. The Regulation has adopted a more classical approach, since the principle of proximity has only a safeguard clause role against the outputs of the rigid connecting factors.
8 1968 Brussels Convention on jurisdiction and the enforcement of judgments in civil and commercial matters (consolidated version). Official Journal of the European Union, C 27, p. 1, 1998.
9 POCAR Fausto. “La protection de la partie faible en droit international privé”. Recueil des Cours de l’Académie de Droit International. (188):339, 1984; COURSIER Philippe. “Le conflit de lois en matière de contrat de travail”. Paris: LGDJ, 1993; LECLERC Frédéric. “La protection de la partie faible dans les contrats internationaux“. Bruxelles: Bruylant, 1996; DE LA ROSA Fernando, Estéban. “La protección de los consumidores en el mercado interor europeo. Régimen juridico de los contratos internacionales de consumo”. Granada: Editorial Comares, 2003.
10 Corte Costituzionale 26 February 1987, n 71/1987. Gazzetta Ufficiale, 1a Serie Speciale n 11; Corte Costituzionale 25 November 1987, n 477/1987. Gazzetta Ufficiale, 1a Serie Speciale n 53, further: GIARDINA Andrea, “La Corte Costituzionale e i rapporti patrimoniali tra coniugi nel diritto internazionale privato”. Rivista di diritto internazionale privato e processuale. (23):204, 1987; Corte Costituzionale 21 June 2006, n 254/2006. Gazzetta Ufficiale, 1a Serie Speciale n 28, further: CONETTI Giorgio, “Giudizi di costituzionalità e successione di norme di conflitto”. En su: Scritti di diritto internazionale privato. Milano, Giuffré, 2011, p. 389; Bundesverfassungsgerichthof 1 BvR 636/68.
11 GONZALES CAMPOS Julio, Diego. “Diversification, spécialisation, flexibilisation et matérialisation des règles de droit international privé. Cours général”. Recueil des Cours de l’Académie de Droit International. (287):9, 2000.
12 Some scholars even consider that the modern PIL finds its basic reason in the protection of fundamental rights: KINSCH Patrick, “Recognition in the Forum of a Status Aquired Abroad – Private International Law Rules and European Human Rights Law”. En: BOELE WOELKI Katharina et al. (Comp.) Convergence and Divergence in Private International Law. Liber Amicorum Kurt Siehr. Zürich: Schulthess, 2010, p. 259; CAMPIGLIO Cristina. “Corsi e ricorsi nel diritto internazionale privato: dagli statutari ai giorni nostri”. Rivista di diritto internazionale privato e processuale. (49):601, 2003; BOMHOFF Jacco. “The Constitution of the Conflict of Laws”, 10 February 2014, [fecha de consulta 8 September 2017]. Disponible en: ssrn.com/abstract=2376171.
13 PICONE Paolo, “Les méthodes de coordination entre ordres juridiques en droit international privé: Cours général de droit international privé”. Recueil des Cours de l’Académie de Droit International. (276):143, 1999.
14 For similar considerations: CARELLA Gabriella. “Sistema delle norme di conflitto e tutela internazionale dei diritti umani: ¿una rivoluzione copernicana?”. Diritti umani e diritto internazionale, (8):523, 2014.
15 FRANZINA Pietro, “Some remarks on the relevance of Article8 of the ECHR to the recognition of family status judicially created abroad”. Diritti umani e diritto internazionale. (5): 611, 2011; CARELLA Gabriella. Ibid., p. 544.
16 ECtHR X and Y v The Netherlands Application No n. 8978/80, Merits and Just Satisfaction, 26 march 1985; ECtHR Plattform «Ärzte für das Leben» v Austria Application No n. 10126/82, Merits, 21 June 1988; ECtHR Von Hannover v Germany Application No n. 59320/00, Merits and Just Satisfaction, 24 June 2005.
17 Scholars are still discussing on the possible direct horizontal effect of the rights guaranteed by the ECHR, but the solutions are not unanimous: MAYER Pierre. “La Convention européenne des droits de l’homme et l’application des normes étrangères”. Revue critique de Droit international privé. (80):651, 1991; FUCHIRON Hugues. “Droits fondamentaux et règles de droit international privé: conflits de droits, conflits de logiques?”. En: SUDRE Frédéric (Comp.) Le droit au respect de la vie familiale au sens de la Convention européenne des droit de l’homme. Bruxelles: Anthemis, 2002, p. 356; CHEREDNYCHENKO Ohla, “The Harmonisation of Contract Law in Europe by Means of the Horizontal Effect of Fundamental Rights?” Era Law. 39, 2007; LECZYKIEWICZ Dorota, “Horizontal Application of the Charter of Fundamental Rights”. European Law Review. (38):479, 2013; CHEREDNYCHENKO Ohla. “Fundamental Rights, European Private Law and Financial Services”. En: MICKLITZ Hans (Comp.) Constitutionalisation of European Private Law. Oxford:OUP, 2014, p. 29; COLOMBI CIACCHI Aurelia. “European Fundamental Rights, Private Law and Judicial Governance’, Ibid., p. 110; HERRESTHAL Carsten. “Grundrechte- Charta und Privatrecht”. Zeitschrift für Europäisches Privatrecht. (22):238, 2014; JACQUÉ Jean-Paul. “The Charter of Fundamental Rights and the Court of Justice of the European Union: A First Assessment of the Interpretation of the Charter’s Horizontal Provisions”. En: ROSSI Lucia, Serena y CASOLARI Federico (Comp.) The EU after Lisbon. Heidelberg:Springer, 2014, p. 137.
18 XENOS Dimitris. “The Positive Obligations of the State under the European Convention of Human Rights”. London: Routledge, 2013.
19 Kiobel v Royal Dutch Petroleum Co, 133 SCt 1659 (2013). The claimants complained in the USA property destruction, forced exile, extrajudicial killing and violation of the rights to life, liberty, security and association perpetrated in Nigeria.
20 KIESTRA Louwrens, Rienk. “The Impact of the European Convention on Human Rights on Private International Law”. The Hague:Springer, 2014, p. 41.
21 YOUROW Howard, “The Margin of Appreciation Doctrine in the Dynamics of European Human Rights Jurisprudence”. The Hague:Martinus Nijhoff Publishers, 1996.
22 ECtHR Schalk and Kopf v Austria Application No 30141/04, Merits and Just Satisfaction, 24 June 2010; ECtHR Vallianatos and others v Greece Application No 29381/09, 32684/09, Merits and Just Satisfaction, 7 November 2013; ECtHR Oliari and others v Italy Application No 18766/11, 36030/11, Merits and Just Satisfaction ,21 July 2015; ECtHR Pajić v Croatia Application No 68453/13, Merits and Just Satisfaction, 23 February 2016.
23 ECtHR Mikulić v Croatia Application No 53176/99, Merits and Just Satisfaction, 7 February 2002; ECtHR Paradiso and Campanelli v Italy Application No 25358/12, 27 January 2015 and 24 January 2017.
24 ECtHR, Wagner v Luxemburg Application No 76240/01, Merits and Just Satisfaction, 28 June 2007; ECtHR, Negrepontis- Giannins v Greece Application No 56759/08, Merits and Just Satisfaction, 3 May 2011.
25 ECtHR Burghartz v Switzerland Application No 16213/90, Merits and Just Satisfaction, 22 February 1994; ECtHR Henry Kismoun v France Application No 32265/10, Merits and Just Satisfaction, 5 December 2013.
26 A positive example of the impact of this case law and of the equal balance of conflicting interests is the well-known case ECtHR Harroudj v France Application No 43631/09, Merits and Just Satisfaction, 4 October 2012. Another example can be the Italian judicial révirement concerning the effects of the same-sex marriages celebrated abroad. After a quite long case-line stating that such marriages do not exist in Italy, the Corte di Cassazione has drastically changed approach, accepting that these are an integral part of the individual’s family life (Cass Civ 15 March 2012, n. 4184/2012, disponible en: www.articolo29.it/decisioni/corte-di- cassazione-sentenza-del-15-marzo-2012-n-4184/ [fecha de consulta 8 September 2017]). The outcome has however not been positive to the couple concerned: although the foreign marriage is part of its family life, it is unable to produce any legal effect in Italy and therefore cannot even be registered in the public registers.
27 Accordingly: FRANZINA Pietro. Op. cit. n. 15, p. 612.
28 ECtHR Bulgakov v Ukraine Application No 59894/00, Merits and Just Satisfaction, 11 September 2007; ECtHR Mentzen v Latvia Application No 71074/01, Merits and Just Satisfaction, 7 December 2004.
29 ECtHR Mennesson v France Application No 65192/11, Merits and Just Satisfaction, 26 June 2014; ECtHR Labasse v France
Application No 65941/11, Merits and Just Satisfaction, 26 June 2014.
30 ECtHR McDonald v France Application No 18648/04, Decision, 29 April 2008.
31 ECtHR Arlewin v Sweden Application No 22302/10, Merits and Just Satisfaction, 1 march 2016.
32 FERNÁNDEZ ARROYO Diego. “Exorbitant and Exclusive Grounds of Jurisdiction in European Private International Law: Will They Ever Survive?”. En: MANSEL Heinz et al. (Comp.) Festschrift für Erik Jayme, München: Sellier, 2004, p. 174; FERNÁNDEZ ARROYO Diego. “Compétence exclusive et compétence exorbitante dans les relations privées internationales” Recueil des Cours de l’Académie de Droit International. (323):9, 2006.
33 ECtHR Nait-Liman v Switzerland Application No 51357/07, Merits and Just Satisfaction, 12 June 2016.
34 ECtHR Hornsby v Greece Application No 18357/91, Merits, 19 March 1997.
35 ECtHR Sylvester v Austria Application No 54640/00, Decision, 9 October 2003.
36 ECtHR Pellegrini v Italy Application No 30882/96, Merits and Just Satisfaction, 20 July 2001.
37 ECtHR Saadi v Italy Application No 37201/06, Merits and Just Satisfaction, 28 February 2008; Court of Justice of the European Union, C-182/15 Petruhhin [2016] ECR I- 630.
38 ECtHR Povse v Austria Application No 3890/11, Decision, 18 June 2013.
39 ECtHR Vrbica v Croatia Application No 32540/05, Merits and Just Satisfaction, 1 April 2010.
40 VRELLIS Spiridion. “Conflit ou coordination de valeurs en droit international privé: à la recherche de la justice”. Recueil des Cours de l’Académie de Droit International. (328):175, 2007; BASEDOW Jürgen. “The Law of open societies – private ordering and public regulation of international relations, General Course on Private International Law”. Recueil des Cours de l’Académie de Droit International. (360):471, 2012.
41 WENGLER Wilhelm. “The General Principles of Private International Law”. Recueil des Cours de l’Académie de Droit International. (104):279, 1961.
42 ECtHR Hämäläinen v Finland Application No 37359/09, Merits and Just Satisfaction, 16 July 2014.
43 For further examples, we refer to: SAFJAN Marek. “The Horizontal Effect of Fundamental Rights in Private Law—On Actors, Vectors, and Factors of Influence”. En: PURNHAGEN Kai y ROTT Peter (Comp.), Varieties of European Economic Law and Regulation. Liber Amicorum for Hans Micklitz. Cham:Springer, 2014, p. 133.
44 In this case the position of the husband has not been considered, since the application concerned only the rights of the wife, so we are not able to state with certainty where the point of balance relies.
45 ECtHR Avotiņš v Latvia Application No 17502/07, Merits and Just Satisfaction, 23 May 2016.
46 ECtHR Šneersone and Kampanella v Italy Application No 14737/09, Merits and Just Satisfaction, 12 July 2011.
47 For further recent references: KINSCH Patrick, “Droit de l’homme, droits fondamentaux et droit international privé”. Recueil des Cours de l’Académie de Droit International. (318):9, 2005; MARCHADIER Fabien, “Les objectifs généraux du droit international privé à l’épreuve de la Convention européenne des droits de l’homme”. Bruxelles:Bruylant, 2007; JURATOWITCH Ben. “The European Convention on Human Rights and English Private International Law” Journal of Private International Law. (3):183, 2007; MILLS Alex. “The Dimensions of Public Policy in Private International Law”. Journal of Private International Law. (4):201, 2008; BOGDAN Michael. “Private International Law as component of the Law of the Forum”. Recueil des Cours de l’Académie de Droit International. (348):170, 2010; FORTEAU Mathias. “L’ordre public
«transnational» ou «réellement international» ”. Journal du Droit International. (140):3, 2013; OSTER Jan. “Public policy, and human rights”. Journal of Private International Law (12):542, 2016.
48 According to some scholars, the public policy exception is acquiring also a positive function, ie it allows the acceptance of foreign values, provided that they do not affect the constitutional structure of the receiving State (for further references: KINSCH Patrick. “La non-conformité du jugement étranger à l’ordre public international mise au diapason de la Convention européenne des droits de l’homme”. Revue critique de Droit international privé. (112):817, 2011; BASEDOW Jürgen. ”Zuständigkeitsderogation, Eingriffsnormen und ordre public”. En: MANKOWSKI Peter y WURMNEST Wolfgang (Comp.) Festschrift für Ulrich Magnus zum 70. Geburtstag, München, Sellier, 2014, p. 337; SALERNO Francesco. “Il vincolo al rispetto dei diritti dell’uomo nel sistema delle fonti del diritto internazionale privato” Diritti umani e diritto internazionale. (8):559, 2014. On the contrary, the foreign law jeopardising a human right must be disregarded and a solution consistent with that right must be sought. This development is due especially to the ECtHR case law: by sanctioning the States not to have fulfilled certain obligations, the Court indirectly establishes what instead the States must grant. This is increasingly true in the European Union, due to the presumption of equivalence (ECtHR Bosphorus v Ireland Application No 45036/98, Merits, 30 June 2005; ECtHR Michaud v France Application No 12323/11, Merits and Just Satisfaction, 6 December 2012; ECtHR, Avotiņš v Latvia supra n 44)) and the primacy legal value of the European Charter of Fundamental Rights. However, it is submitted that such development is typical in the European Union, as being all its Member States parties to the ECHR, too, but it cannot by now be extended in the international relationships in general. Therefore, when dealing with the international and national PIL, we would suggest to maintain the traditional approach.
49 We only need to consider the French-traditional ordre public de proximité: SINDRES David. “Vers la disparition de l’ordre public de proximité?” Journal du Droit International. (139):889, 2012; CARLIER Jean-Yves. “Diversité culturelle et droit international privé. De l’ordre public aux accommodements réciproques?”. En: CATALDI Giuseppe y GRADO Valentina (Comp.) Diritto internazionale e pluralità delle culture. Napoli, Editoriale Scientifica, 2014, p. 125.
50 For further recent developments on the notion of overriding mandatory rules: KUNDA Ivana. “Internationally Mandatory Rules of a Third Country in the European Contract Conflict of Laws. The Rome Convention and the Proposed Rome I Regulation”. Rijeka: Rijeka Law Faculty Publications, 2007, p. 156; WILDERSPIN Michael. “The Rome I Regulation: Communitarisation and modernisation of the Rome Convention”. ERA Forum. (9):272, 2008; BONOMI Andrea. “Le norme di applicazione necessaria nel regolamento “Roma I””. En: BOSCHIERO Nerina (Comp.) La nuova disciplina comunitaria della legge applicabile ai contratti (Roma I). Torino: Giappichelli, 2009, p. 173; SONNENBERGER Hans, Jűrgen. “Overriding Mandatory Provisions”. En: LEIBLE Stefan (Comp.). General Principles of European Private International Law. Alphen aan den Rijn:Wolters Kluwer, 2016, p. 117.
51 This approach is partially changing particularly in the European Union, since the application of the mandatory norms can be prevented if the foreign applicable law is suitable to satisfy the same legal and factual needs. This modern approach is once more ‘territorially’ limited and cannot by now overcome the traditional method, although it is lessening the differences between public policy and the overriding mandatory norms: POILLOT-PERUZZETTO Sylvaine. “Ordre public et loi de police dans l’ordre communautaire”. Travaux du Comité français de droit international privé. 2002-2004, p. 65; LANDO Ole. “Mandatory rules and ordre public ”. En su (et al.): Harmonisation of Substantive and International Private Law. Frankfurt:Peter Lang, 2003, p. 99; REMY Benjamin. “Exception d’ordre public et mécanisme des lois de police en droit international privé“. Paris:Dalloz, 2008; DE VAREILLES-SOMMIERES Pascal. “Lois de police et politiques législatives” Revue critique de Droit international privé. (112):207. 2011.
52 PICONE Paolo. “La méthode de la référence à l’ordre juridique compétent en droit international privé” Recueil des Cours de l’Académie de Droit International. (197):264, 1986; MANSEL Heinz. “Anerkennung als Grundprinzip des Europäischen Rechtsraums. Zur Herausbildung eines europäischen Anerkennungs-Kollisionsrechts: Anerkennung statt Verweisung als neues Strukturprinzip des Europäischen internationalen Privatrechts?’ Rabels Zeitschrift für ausländisches und internationales Privatrecht. (70):724, 2006; BARATTA Roberto. “La reconnaissance internationale des situations juridiques personnelles et familiales”. Recueil des Cours de l’Académie de Droit International. (348):293, 2007; LAGARDE Paul. “La méthode de la reconnaissance est-elle l’avenir du droit international privé?” Recueil des Cours de l’Académie de Droit International. (371):26, 2014.
53 The suggestions vary. MANSEL Heinz. Op. cit. n. 52, p. 718 analyses ‘metarules on the conflict of laws’ aimed at the identification of the State of origin. Instead, Picone, supra n 51 at 274 proposes an objective exclusive competence. Further, some scholars stress on the application of the principle of proximity, but here, too, the opinions differ. LAGARDE Paul. Op. cit.
- 52, p. 34 suggests that the State of origin should have an effective link with the individual concerned, but QUINONES ESCAMEZ Ana. “Propositions pour la formation, la reconnaissance et l’efficacité internationales des unions conjugales ou de couple”. Revue critique de Droit international privé, (108):381, 2007, applies it in the opposite direction, aiming at granting the recognition until it is manifestly evident that there is a lack of actual connections with the State of origin.
54 PICONE Paolo. “L’art. 65 della legge italiana di riforma del diritto internazionale privato e il riconoscimento delle sentenze straniere di divorzio”. Rivista di diritto internazionale privato e processuale. (36):381, 2000. We need to recall that Article 65 of the Italian law is applicable only to the recognition of foreign judgments and not to public documents, either (LOPES PEGNA Olivia. “I procedimenti relativi all’efficacia delle decisioni straniere in materia civile”. Padova:Cedam, 2009, p. 14). If a dispute does not arise, the public document certifying the legal status is not subject to an automatic recognition.
55 According to LAGARDE Paul. Op. cit. n. 52, p. 26 the recognition of legal situations is in fact grounded on three elements: the continuity of the individual’s status, the protection of human rights and the EU citizenship. The first and the third conditions are peculiar and depend on a supranational and integrated system, as the European Union, where Member States experiment the principles of mutual trust and of mutual recognition. Notwithstanding the integration, the acceptance of foreign values can be pushed up to certain limits. The difficulties to accept a strongly open approach even in an integrated system are demonstrated by the most recent EU measures on the civil judicial and the administrative cooperation, which do not implement the recognition of legal situations in the field of the acceptance of foreign public document (Council Regulation (EU) 2016/1191 of 6 July 2016 on promoting the free movement of citizens by simplifying the requirements for presenting certain public documents in the European Union and amending Regulation (EU) No 1024/2012. Official Journal of the European Union, L 200, p. 1, 2016). Such a high level of mutual trust between (Member) States is not easy to realise in practice. We submit that even more difficulties can logically arise in purely international relationships, where a strong integration might lack.
56 Supra n 26.
57 FRANZINA Pietro. Op. cit. n. 15, p. 613.
58 Regulation (EU) No 1215/2012 of the European Parliament and of the Council of 12 December 2012 on jurisdiction and the recognition and enforcement of judgments in civil and commercial matters (recast). Official Journal of the European Union, L 351, p. 1, 2012.
59 «Article 3. The parties may explicitly choose the law applicable to their foreign-related civil relation in accordance with the provisions of this law».
60 YETANO Toni, Marzal. “The Constitutionalisation of Party Autonomy in European Family Law” Journal of Private International Law, (6):155, 2010; KROLL-LUDWIGS Kathrin. “Die Rolle der Parteiautonomie in europäischen Kollisionsrecht”. Tübingen:Mohr Siebeck, 2013, p. 301.
61 ECtHR Sheffield and Horsam/United Kingdom Application No 22985/93, 23390/94, Merits, 30 July 1998.
62 Similar considerations are envisaged by: CHEREDNYCHENKO Ohla. “EU Fundamental Rights, EC Fundamental Freedoms and Private Law”. European Review of Private Law. (14): 41, 2006; YETANO Toni, Marzal. Op. cit. n. 60, p.155; HURPY Hélène. “Fonction de l’autonomie personnelle et protection des droits de la personne humaine dans les jurisprudences constitutionnelles et européenne”. Bruxelles:Bruylant, 2015, p. 135.
63 Protocol of 23 November 2007 on the Law Applicable to Maintenance Obligations, due to the works of the Hague Conference of Private International Law.
64 European Parliament and Council Regulation (EC) 864/2007 of 11 July 2007 on the law applicable to non-contractual obligations (Rome II). Official Journal of the European Union, L 199, p. 40, 2007.
65 FUMAGALLI Luigi. “Criteri di giurisdizione in materia civile e commerciale e rispetto dei diritti dell’uomo: il sistema europeo e la garanzia del due process”. Diritti umani e diritto internazionale. (8):585, 2014.
66 Council Regulation (EU) 2016/1103 of 24 June 2016 implementing enhanced cooperation in the area of jurisdiction, applicable law and the recognition and enforcement of decisions in matters of matrimonial property regimes. Official Journal of the European Union, L 183, p. 1, 2016 and Council Regulation (EU) 2016/1104 of 24 June 2016 implementing enhanced cooperation in the area of jurisdiction, applicable law and the recognition and enforcement of decisions in matters of the property consequences of registered partnerships. Ibid. p. 30 provide for a sort of lex non conveniens clause, to be invoked in exceptional circumstances. Among others, a condition for the application of this rule is the fulfilment of the legitimate expectations of the parties (Article 26, para. 3 Regulation 2016/1103; Article 26, para. 2 Regulation 2016/1104).
67 This evolution has a great significance, firstly, because it is an important confirmation for the legitimacy of these mechanisms also under the right to a fair trial; secondly, because the initial EU approach was quite against any form of discretion in the determination of the jurisdiction (Court of Justice of the European Union, C-281/02 Owusu [2005] ECR I-1383). EU regulations currently admit that the judge can refuse to exercise jurisdiction (Article 15 of Council (EU) Regulation 2201/2003 of 27 November 2003 concerning jurisdiction and the recognition and enforcement of judgments in matrimonial matters and the matters of parental responsibility, repealing Regulation (EC) No 1347/2000. Official Journal of the European Union, L 338, p. 1, 2003; Article 6 of European Parliament and Council Regulation (EU) 650/2012 of 4 July 2012 on jurisdiction, applicable law, recognition and enforcement of decisions and acceptance and enforcement of authentic instruments in matters of succession and on the creation of a European Certificate of Succession. Official Journal of the European Union, L 201, p. 107, 2012; Article 9 Regulation 2016/1103; Article 9 Regulation 2016/1104).
68 The ECtHR has recently examined the forum necessitatis provided for in this rule in the case Nait-Liman v Switzerland (supra n 32). The margin of appreciation justifies a strict interpretation of the rule, to the extent that it does not deprive the applicant of a jurisdictional remedy. Therefore, the Court can refuse to hear a case, even if the applicant had been considered a refugee in Switzerland, where he resided habitually for the next 11 years, provided that this refusal is reasonably justified.
69 Article 7 of Council Regulation (EC) 4/2009 of 18 December 2008 on jurisdiction, applicable law, recognition and enforcement of decisions and cooperation in matters relating to maintenance obligations. Official Journal of the European Union, L 7, p. 1, 2009; Article 11 Regulation 650/2012; Article 11 Regulation 1103/2016; Article 11 Regulation 1104/2016.
70 This issue is of utmost importance and currently discussed within many institutions. We only need to consider the recent Resolution of the Institut de droit international on Universal civil jurisdiction with regard to reparation for international crimes, Tallin, august 2015 (disponible en: justitiaetpace.org/resolutions_chrono.php?start=2009&end=2015 [fecha de consulta 8 September 2017]). The prospective Article 2 provides for the jurisdiction of a court even thou not having a strong connection with the case, provided that the victims do not have available any other remedy in other courts, strongly connected to the case.
71 Examples thereof can be found in the EU Regulations 650/2012, 2016/1103, 2016/1104.